Development and Psychometric Validation of the Emotional Experience of Internet Shutdown Scale (EEISS) in Iranian University Students

Shomali Ahmadabadi, Mehdi; Barkhordari Ahmadabadi, Atefeh

doi:10.22034/jmp.2026.590196.1178

Development and Psychometric Validation of the Emotional Experience of Internet Shutdown Scale (EEISS) in Iranian University Students

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

Mehdi Shomali Ahmadabadi ¹

Atefeh Barkhordari Ahmadabadi ²

¹ Ph.D. in Psychology, Department of Education, Ardakan, Yazd, Iran

² Master's Degree in Clinical Psychology, Isf.C, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

10.22034/jmp.2026.590196.1178

Abstract

Objective: The emotional experience of internet shutdown may increase psychological distress and contribute to maladaptive responses. This study aimed to develop and psychometrically evaluate the Emotional Experience of Internet Shutdown Scale (EEISS) among Iranian university students during the 2025–2026 academic year.
Methods: This scale-development study used a descriptive–analytical survey design with correlational psychometric analyses. Students of Payame Noor University of Yazd (N = 420) were recruited Convenience Sampling. Data were collected using the researcher-developed EEISS, the Wartime Anxiety Scale to assess convergent validity, and Snyder’s Hope Scale () to examine divergent validity. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and Pearson correlations were conducted in SPSS 26 and AMOS 24.
Results: EFA showed that the EEISS consists of 10 items loading on three latent factors, jointly accounting for 80.967% of the total variance. CFA further supported the satisfactory fit of the three-factor model (RMSEA = 0.043, CFI = 0.991, GFI = 0.976). Convergent validity was evidenced by a positive, significant correlation with war anxiety (r = 0.275), whereas divergent validity was supported by a negative, significant correlation with hope (r = −0.331). The overall reliability of the scale, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.875), reflected desirable internal consistency.
Conclusion: Overall, these findings suggest that the EEISS possesses sound psychometric properties and can be employed as a valid and reliable instrument for the targeted assessment of the emotional experience of internet shutdown among university students.

Keywords

War

Emotion

Internet

Psychometrics

University students

Subjects

Afari, E., Eksail, F. A. A., Khine, M. S., & Alaam, S. A. (2023). Computer self‑efficacy and ICT integration in education: Structural relationship and mediating effects. Education and Information Technologies, 28(9), 12021–12037. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11679-8

Alavi S. S., Eslami M., Meracy M. R., Najafi M., Jannatifard F., Rezapour H, (2010). Psychometric properties of Young internet addiction test, International Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 4(3), 183. https://www.behavsci.ir/article_67688.html

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological bulletin, 117(3), 497.‏ https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

Bravo, A. J., Drusano, M. F., Williamson, M., Dunaief, R. J., Williamson, R., & Heermans, G. (2026). Moral injury among humanitarian aid personnel: A preliminary examination of associations with rumination and mental health. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 11(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-025-00183-y

De Gregorio, G., & Stremlau, N. (2020). Internet Shutdowns in Africa| Internet Shutdowns and the Limits of Law. International Journal of Communication, 14, 20-20.‏

Deng, Z., Yang, R., Li, N., Wei, X., & Li, Y. (2025). Hope therapy brings hope: an empirical study of a curriculum intervention to enhance school adaptation of Chinese high school freshmen. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1555364.‌ https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1555364

Dinç, F., Kurt, A., Atay, S. N., Erboğa, Ü., & Kılıç, K. (2025). Determinants of nomophobia and its relationship with loneliness in adolescents: A cross-sectional study. Anatolian Journal of Health Research, 6(2), 123-130.‌ https://doi.org/10.61534/anatoljhr.1682609

Folkman, S. (2020). Stress: appraisal and coping. In Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine (pp. 2177-2179). Cham: Springer International Publishing.‏ https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-030-39903-0_215

Grogan, J. (2020). States of emergency: Analysing global use of emergency powers in response to COVID-19. Eur. JL Reform, 22, 338.‌ https://doi.org/10.5553/EJLR/138723702021022004002

Bijari, H., Ghanbari HashemAbadi, B. A., Aghamohammadian Sherbaf, H. R., & Homayi Shandiz, F. (2009). Effects of hope-based group therapy on the promotion of hope in women with breast cancer. Foundations of Education, 10(1), 171.

Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J. P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual review of organizational psychology and organizational behavior, 5, 103-128.‏ https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640

Hoe, S. L. (2008). Issues and procedures in adopting structural equation modelling technique. Journal of Quantitative Methods, 3(1), 76.‏

Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. The public opinion quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.‏ https://doi.org/10.1086/268109

Khajeahmadi, M., Pooladi, S., & Bahreini, M. (2017). Design and assessment of psychometric properties of the addiction to mobile questionnaire based on social networks. Iranian Journal of Psychiatric Nursing, 4(4), 43-51.‏ https://ijpn.ir/browse.php?a_id=884&sid=1&slc_lang=en

Kwon, M., Lee, J. Y., Won, W. Y., Park, J. W., Min, J. A., Hahn, C., ... & Kim, D. J. (2013). Development and validation of a smartphone addiction scale (SAS). PLOS ONE, 8(2), e56936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056936

Lawshe, C. H. (1975). A quantitative approach to content validity. Personnel psychology, 28(4), 563-575.‏ https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x

Lian, S. L., Cao, X. X., Xiao, Q. L., Zhu, X. W., Yang, C., & Liu, Q. Q. (2023). Family cohesion and adaptability reduce mobile phone addiction: The mediating and moderating roles of automatic thoughts and peer attachment. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1122943. ‌https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1122943

Mahmoudian, H., Kochani Isfahani, M., & Moqadas, S. (2015). Consumption of media, body management and pregnancy behavior (A study of women teachers in Yasuj). Strategy for Culture, 8(31), 173-196.‏

Măirean, C., Cobzeanu, A., & Dănilă, O. (2025). Breaking news, breaking minds? Social media engagement and peritraumatic stress behavior immediately after the Russian–Ukrainian war outbreak: The role of peritraumatic anxiety and dispositional resilience. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 20, 100808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100808

Alizadeh, M., Hasani, M., Mianbandi, G., & Ashouri, A. (2021). Psychometric properties of the Persian version of nomophobia questionnaire. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 234-247.‏ https://ijpcp.iums.ac.ir/article-1-2994-en.html

Rajkumar, E., Lipsa, J. M., Harshit, S., & Gopi, A. (2025). Effectiveness of psychological interventions for mental health problems among war refugees: A systematic review and meta‑analysis. Psychiatry Research, 348, 116432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2025.116432

Sachu, B., Sankaranaraynan, K. B., & Kadeswaran, S. (2025). Beyond the Headlines: Media dependency and social media news consumption among youth. International Journal of Research-Granthaalayah, 13(6), 114-124.‏ https://dx.doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v13.i6.2025.6226

Sarzhanova, G., & Nurgabdeshov, A. (2025). Mapping psychological well-being in education: A systematic review of key dimensions and an integrative conceptual framework. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 9(3), 327-349.‌ https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.202534832

Sevari, K. (2014). Construction and Validation of the Mobile Phone Addiction Questionnaire. Quarterly of Educational Measurement, 5(15), 126-142. https://jem.atu.ac.ir/article_272_en.html

Seyedi Khalilabad,S Z and Hosseini,S R . (2025). Psychometric Properties of the Short Form of the Smartphone Addiction Scale among Iranian Adults. Iranian Journal of Psycho-educational Assessment, 1(2), 209-221. doi: 10.30470/ijpa.2025.733211

Shapiro, M. O., Threeton, E. M., Morris, P. E., & Raines, A. M. (2026). Examining reductions in thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and rumination within group‑based behavioral activation treatment for depression. Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy, 36(2), 100553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbct.2025.100553

Shomali Ahmadabadi, M., & Barkhordari Ahmadabadi, A. (2025). Construction and validation of the Iranian version of the war anxiety scale. Journal of Social Psychology, 15(2), 120–140. https://sanad.iau.ir/en/Journal/psychology/Article/1210160

Snyder CR, Harris C, Anderson JR, Holleran SA, Irving LM, Sigmon ST, et al. (1991). The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570-85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.570

Snyder, C. R., Lehman, K. A., Kluck, B., & Monsson, Y. (2006). Hope for rehabilitation and vice versa. Rehabilitation Psychology, 51(2), 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1037/0090-5550.51.2.89

Swart, J. (2023). Tactics of news literacy: How young people access, evaluate, and engage with news on social media. New media & society, 25(3), 505-521.‏ https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211011447

Wegmann, E., Oberst, U., Stodt, B., & Brand, M. (2017). Online-specific fear of missing out and Internet-use expectancies contribute to symptoms of Internet-communication disorder. Addictive behaviors reports, 5, 33-42.‏ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235285321730007X

Yavetz, G., Zumofen, R., & Mabillard, V. (2025). Trust in government and media consumption during an armed conflict: The case of the Israeli public during the Swords of Iron War. Armed Forces & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X251365854

Yildirim, C., & Correia, A. P. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of nomophobia: Development and validation of a self-reported questionnaire. Computers in human behavior, 49, 130-137.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.059

Young, K. S. (1999). Internet addiction: Symptoms, evaluation, and treatment. In L. VandeCreek & T. L. Jackson (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice (Vol. 17). Professional Resource Press.

Zahedbablan., Ghasempour, A & Hassanzadeh, S. (2011). The role of forgiveness and psychological hardiness in predicting hope. Knowledge and Research in Applied Psychology, 12(3 (45th issue), 12-19. https://sid.ir/paper/163806/en

Zhang, S. X., & Li, L. Z. (2025). War anxiety: A review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 27(2), 140–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-024-01583-4